Research Article

Hepatitis D Virus: An Important Viral Agent in Hepatitis B Virus Endemic Regions a Review

Kekere-Ekun Abdulhafeez Abiola1*
1 Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Medicine University of Lagos, Idi-Araba Lagos State.
* Corresponding author: abiolahafeez@yahoo.com
Published: Jun, 2018
DOI: 10.67614/njm.2018.z3anp8x1
Pages: 4183-4192

Abstract

More than 370 million individuals worldwide are Hepatitis B virus (HB V) carriers and about 5% of these individuals are co-infected with Hepatitis D virus (HDV). Hepatitis D virus is a defective virus that requires the obligatory help of Hepatitis B virus for its replication and expression. Hepatitis D virus is known to induce acute or chronic liver diseases. Individuals having HBV-HDV co-infection are prone to present with more severe acute disease and higher risk of fulminant hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) than those having Hepatitis B virus infection alone. Based on phylogenetic analysis, Hepatitis D virus is classified into 8 genotypes. Except genotype 1 which is found worldwide, genotypes 2-8 have specific geographical distribution. The transmission of Hepatitis D virus is similar to that of Hepatitis B virus (i.e. by blood and blood products, perinatal and also sexual intercourse). Hepatitis D virus can be diagnosed by serological analysis, molecular techniques and histo-immunochemistry. Several antiviral agents are under trial with varying degrees of efficacy. However, vaccination against Hepatitis B virus has helped in the control of Hepatitis D virus.

Keywords

Hepatitis D virus (HDV) Hepatitis B virus (HBV) Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) Fulminant hepatitis Cirrhosis

References

  1. Abbas, Z, and Afzal, R. (2013). Life cycle and pathogenesis of hepatitis D virus: A review. World J Hepatol 5:666-675.
  2. Abbas, Z., Khan, M., Salih, M. and Jafri, W. (2011), and "Interferon alpha for chronic hepatitis D". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (12): CD006002.
  3. Abdulraheem, I., Onajole, A., Jimoh, A. and Oladipo, A. (2011). Reasons for incomplete vaccination and factors for missed opportunities among rural Nigerian children. J Public Health Epidemiol. 3:194-203.
  4. Alvarado-Mora, M., Locarnini, S., Rizzetto, M. and Pinho, J. (2013). An HDV virology, pathogenesis and treatment. AntivirTher. :18(3 Pt B):541-8.
  5. Alvarado-Mora, M., Romano, C., Gomes-Gouvea, M., Gutierez, M., Carrilho, F., and Pinho, J. (2011). Dynamics of hepatitis D (delta) virus genotype 3 in the Amazon region of South America. Infect Genet Evol; 11: 1462-1468.
  6. Alves, C., Branco, C. and Cunha, C. (2013). Article Review Hepatitis Delta Virus: A Peculiar Virus.Advances in Virol;
  7. Ahn, J. and Gish, R. (2014). Hepatitis D Virus: A Call to Screening. Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y) 10(10).
  8. Andernach, I., Leiss, T., Tamagda, Z., Tahita, M., Otegbayo, J. and Forbi, J. (2014) Characterization of hepatitis D virus in sub-Saharan Africa. J Clin Microbiol 52:1629-36.
  9. Botelho-Souza, L., Vasconcelos, M., dos Santos A., Salcedo, L. and Vieira, D. (2017). Hepatitis delta: virological and clinical Aspects Virol Journ 14:177
  10. Burnett, R., Kramvis, A., Dochez, C., and Meheus, A. (2012). An update after 16 years of vaccination in South Africa. Vaccine; 30 Suppl 3:C45-C51.
  11. Casey, J, Brown, T, Colan, E, Wignall, F and Gerin (1993). A genotype D virus that occurs in northern South America. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A; 90: 9016-9020.
  12. Chang, J., Gudima, S. and Tam, C. (2005). Development of a novel system to study hepatitis delta virus genome replication. J Virol;79:182-8188.
  13. Choi, S, Jeong, Y. and Hwang, S. (2007). Large hepatitis delta antigen modulates transforming growth factor-beta signaling cascades: Therapeutic Options for a Neglected Pathogen. Viruses, 9, 172
  14. Ciancio, A. and Rizzetto, M. (2014). Chronic hepatitis D at a standstill: where do we go from here? Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol;11:68-71.
  15. Cross, T., Rizzi, P. and Homer, M. (2008). The increasing prevalence of hepatitis (HDV) infection in South London. J Med Virol; 80: 277-82.
  16. Denniston, K., Hoyer, B, Smedile, A, Wells, F., Nelson, J. and Gerin, J. (1986). Cloned fragment of the hepatitis delta virus RNA genome: sequence and diagnostic application. Science; 232: 873-875.
  17. Dény, P. (2006). Hepatitis delta virus genetic variability: from genotypes I, II to eight major clades? Curr Top Microbiol. Immunol; 307: 151-171
  18. de Sousa, B. and Cunha, C. (2010). Development of mathematical models for the analysis of hepatitis delta viral dynamics. PLoS One;5
  19. Farci, P. (2006). Treatment of chronic hepatitis D: new advances, old challenges. Hepatology;44:536-539.
  20. Farci P and Niro, G. (2012). Clinical Features of Hepatitis D. Semin Liver Dis; 32:228-236.
  21. Fattovich, G., Giustina, G and Christensen, E. (2000). Influence of hepatitis delta virus infection on morbidity and mortality in compensated cirrhosis type B, Gut, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 420-426.
  22. Flores, R., Ruiz-Ruiz, S and Serra, P. (2012). Viroids and hepatitis delta virus. Semin Liver Dis ;32:201-10.
  23. Gaeta, G., Stroffolini, T., Chiaramonte, M., Ascione, T., Stornaiuolo, G. and Lobello S. (2000). An Italian multicenter study. hepatitis D: a vanishing Disease? hepatology;32:824-827.
  24. Gaeta, G., Stroffolini, T., Smedile, A., Niro, G. and Mele, A. (2007). Hepatitis Delta in Europe: vanishing or refreshing? Hepatology; 46: 1312-3.
  25. Gheorghe, L., Csiki, I, Iacob, S., Gheorghe, C., Trifan, A., Grigorescu, M., Motoc, A., Suceveanu, A., Curescu, M., Caruntu, F., Sporea, I., Brisc, C.
  26. Rogoveanu, I., Cerban, R., Tugui, L., Alexandrescu, A. (2013). Hepatitis Delta virus infection in Romania: Prevalence and risk, J Hepatol; 58: S169.
  27. Glenn, J. (2006). Prevalation of HDAg and antiviral drug development. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol; 307:133-149
  28. Hughes, S, Wedemeyer, H. and Harrison, P. (2011). Hepatitis delta virus. Lancet; 378:73-85.
  29. Hwang, E. and Cheung, R. (2011). Global epidemiology of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. N Am J Med Sci; 4(1):7-13.
  30. Imazeki, F., Omata, M. and Ohto, M. (1990). Heterogeneity and evolution rates of delta hepatitis virus RNA sequence. J Virol 64:5594-9.
  31. Ivaniushina, V., Radjef, N. and Alexeeva M. (2001). Hepatitis delta virus genotypes I and II cocirculate in an endemic area of Yakutia, Russia. J Gen Virol 2001; 82(Part 11): 2709 18
  32. Jemal, A., Bray, F., Center, M., Ferlay, J., Ward, E. and Forman, D. (2011). Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin; 61: 69-90
  33. Kabaçam, G., Onder, F. and Yakut, M. (2012). Entecavir treatment of chronic hepatitis D. Clin Infect Dis; 55(5):645-650.
  34. Le Gal, F., Castelneau, C., and Gault, E. (2007). Hepatitis D virus infection – not a vanishing disease in Europe!. Hepatology; 45: 1332-3.
  35. Le Gal, F., Gault, E. and Ripault, M. (2006). Eighth major clade for hepatitis delta virus. Emerg Infect Dis; 12: 1447-50.
  36. Le Gal, F., Gordien, E. and Affolabi, D. (2005). Quantification of hepatitis delta virus RNA in serum by consensus real-time PCR indicates different patterns of viroloigical response to interferon therapy in chronically infected patients. J Clin Microbiol;43:2363-2369.
  37. Lee, C., Changchien, C., Chiang, J. and Liaw, Y. (1996). Characterization of a new genotype II hepatitis delta virus strain from Taiwan. J Med Virol; 49: 145-154.
  38. Lempp, F. N. Y and Urban, S. (2016) Hepatitis delta virus: insights into a peculiar pathogen and novel treatment options. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol;13:580-589.
  39. Lempp, F. and Urban, S. (2017). Hepatitis Delta Virus: Replication Strategy and Upcoming Therapeutic Options for a Neglected Pathogen. Viruses, 9, 172
  40. Lin, C., Lee, C., Lin, S., Huang, P., Li, H., Chang, Y., Tang, P and Chao, M. (2017). RNA recombination in Hepatitis delta virus: Identification of a novel naturally occurring recombinant. Journal of Microbiology, Immunol and Infection ; 50, 771e780
  41. Lin, S and Zhang, Y. (2017). Interference of Apoptosis by Hepatitis B Virus. Viruses; 9, 230
  42. Lutgehetmann, M., Mancke, L. and Volz, T. (2012). Humanized chimeric uPA mouse model for the study of hepatitis B and D virus interactions and preclinical drug evaluation. Hepatol;55:685-94.
  43. Makuwa, M., Mintsa-Ndong, A., Souquiere, S., Nkoghe, D., Leroy, E. and Kazanji, M. (2009). Prevalence and molecular diversity of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis delta virus in urban and rural populations in northern Gabon in central Africa, J Clin. Microbiol; 47:2265-8
  44. Mansour, W., Malick, F., Sidiya, A., Ishagh, E., Chekaraou, M. and Veillon, P. (2012). Prevalence, risk factors, and molecular epidemiology of hepatitis B and hepatitis delta virus in pregnant women and in patients in Mauritania. J Med Virol; 84:1186-98
  45. Noureddin, M. and Gish, R. (2014). Hepatitis Delta: Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Management 36 Years After Discovery.CurrGastroenterol Rep; 16:365
  46. Niro, G., Rosina, F. and Rizzetto, M. (2005). Treatment of hepatitis D. J Viral Hepat; 12:29. Niro, G. and Smedile, A. (2012). Current pathophysiology of hepatitis delta infection. Curr Infect Dis Rep; 14:9-14.
  47. Nwokediuko, S. and Ijoma, U. (2016). Hepatitis delta virus: insights into a peculiar pathogen and novel treatment options. seroprevalence of antibody to HDV in Nigerians with hepatitis B virus-related liver diseases. Niger J Clin Pract;17:439-42
  48. Okoror , L., Ajayi, A., and Ijalana, O. (2017). Elevated serum β2 microglobulin in individuals coinfected with hepatitis B and hepatitis D virus in a rural settings in Southwest Nigeria. BMC Res Notes 10:719
  49. Ottobrelli, A., Marzano, A. and Smedile, A. (1991). Patterns of hepatitis delta virus reinfection and disease in liver transplantation. Gastroenterol; 101(6):1649-1655
  50. Opaleye, O., Japhet, O., Adewumi, O., Omoruyi, E., Akanbi, O., Oluremi, A., Wang, B., Hoang, T., Thirumalaisamy, P., Velavan, C. and Bock, T. (2016). Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis D virus circulating in Southwestern Nigeria. Virol. Journ 13:61.
  51. Opaleye, O., Fagbami, A., Lalremruata, A. and Kun, S. (2011). Prevalence and incidence of human parvovirus B19V with hepatitis B and C viruses in Nigeria. J Med Virol;83:710-6
  52. Pascarella, S. and Negro, F. (2011). Hepatitis D virus: an update. Liver Int. 31 (1): 7–21.
  53. Rizzetto, M. (1983). The delta agent. J Hepatol; 3:729-737.
  54. Rizzetto, M. (2010). Delta hepatitis: Forgotten, but not gone. Curr. Hepatitis Rep; 9:239-242
  55. Rizzetto, M. (2015). Hepatitis D Virus: Introduction and Epidemiology. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med;5:a021576
  56. Rizzetto, M. and Alavian, S. (2013). Hepatitis delta: the rediscovery. Clin Liver Dis; 17(3):475-487
  57. Rizzetto, M. and Smedile, A. (2002). Diseases of the Liver, Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 863-875
  58. Rizzetto, M., Shih, J. and Gerin J. (1980). Identification of HBsAg-associated delta antigen: isolation from liver, development of solidphaseradioimmunoassays for delta antigen and antidelta and partial characterization of delta antigen. J Immunol ;125:318-324.
  59. Rizzetto, M., Canese, M. and Arico, J. (1977). .Immunofluorescence detection of a new antigen-antibody system associated to the hepatitis B virus in the liver and in the serum of HBsAg carriers. Gut 1977;18:997-1003.
  60. Rizzetto, M., Purcell, R. and Gerin J. (1980). Epidemiology of HBV associated delta agent: geographical distribution of antid and polytransfused HBsAg carriers. Lancet ;1:1215-1218.
  61. Rizzetto, M., Canese, M., Gerin, J., London, W., Sly, D. and Purcell R. (1980). Transmission of the
  62. Roche B and Samuel D. (2012). Liver transplantation in delta virus infection. Semin Liver Dis; 32(3):245-55.
  63. Romeo, R. (2010). Role of the hepatitis Delta virus in the pathogenesis of hepatic cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Recent advances. Recenti Prog Med; 101: 52-56.
  64. Romeo, R., Foglieni, B., Casazza, G., Spreafico, M., Colombo, M. and Prati D. (2014). High Serum Levels of HDV RNA Are Predictors of Cirrhosis and Liver Cancer in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis Delta. PLoS ONE 9(3): e92062.
  65. Romeo, R., Del Ninno, E., Rumi, M., Russo, A., Sangiovanni, A. and de Franchis, R. (2009). A 28-year study of the course of hepatitis delta infection: a risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology; 136:1629-38.
  66. Sakugawa, H., Nakasone, H. and Nakayoshi T. (1999). Hepatitis delta virus genotype IIb predominates in an endemic area, Okinawa, Japan. J Med Virol; 58: 366-72.
  67. Scholtes, C., Icard, V. and Amiri M. (2012). Standardized one-step real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay for universal detection and quantification of hepatitis delta virus (HDV) from clinical samples in the presence of a heterogeneous internal control RNA. J Clin Microbiol; 50: 2126-2128.
  68. Servant-Delmas, A, Le Gal F., Gallian, P., Gordien, E. and Laperche S. (2014). Increasing prevalence of HDV/HBV infection over 15 years in France. J Clin Virol; 59: 126-128.
  69. Shiva, G., Alavian, S., Rizzetto, M., Olivero, A., Smedile, A., Alavian, S., Zolfaghari, M. and Jazayeri, S. (2013). Prevalence of Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV) Infection in Chronic Hepatitis B Patients with Unusual Clinical Pictures.Braz Mol 6731.
  70. Smedile, A., Casey, J. and Gerin J. (1998). Hepatitis D viremia following orthotopic liver transplantation involves a typical HDV virionwith a hepatitis B surface antigen envelope. Hepatol;27(6): 1723-1729
  71. Smedile, M., Ciancio, A. and Rizzetto, M. (2002). Hepatitis D In: Richmond DL, Whitley RJ,
  72. Hayden FG, eds. Clinical Virology: Hepatitis Delta Virus. Washington, DC: ASM Press;1227-1240
  73. Webb, C. Riccitelli, N., Ruminski, D. and Luptak A. (2009). Widespread occurrence of self-cleaving ribozymes. Science, vol. 326, no. 5955, p. 955.
  74. Wedemeyer, H., Heidrich, B. and Manns, M. (2007). Hepatitis D virus infection – not a vanishing disease in Europe. Hepatology 45; 1331-1332.
  75. Wedemeyer, H. and Manns, M. (2010). Epidemiology, pathogenesis and management of hepatitis D: Update and challenges ahead. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol; 7:31-40.
  76. Wedemeyer, H, Yurdaydin C, Ernst S, et al: 96 weeks of pegylated-Interferonalpha- 2a plusenobor for the treatment of hepatitis delta: the HIDIT-2 study (abstr). Hepatology, 2013; 58: 222-3.
  77. World Health Organization: Hepatitis D, Fact Sheet July 2016
  78. World Health Organization: Hepatitis D, Fact Sheet July 2016
  79. Wang, K., Choo, Q. and Weiner A. (1986). Structure, sequence and expression of the hepatitis delta viral genome. Nature;323:508-513.
  80. Watanabe, H., Nagayama, K. and Enomoto, N. (2003). Chronic hepatitis delta virus infection with genotype IIb variant is correlated with progressive liver disease. J Gen Virol 2003; 84(Part 12): 3275- 3289.
  81. Watts, A., Bennett, W., Mollestion, J., Gupta, S., Croffie, J., Waseem, S., McFerron, B., Steiner, S., Kumar, S., Vanderpool, C., Hon, E., Bozic, M., Subbarao, G. and Pfefferkorn M. (2017). The Incidence of Low Seroimmunity to Hepatitis B Virus in Children with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr.
  82. Yamashiro, T., Nagayama, K. and Enomoto, N. (2004). Quantitation of the level of hepatitis delta virus RNA in serum, by real-time polymerase chain reaction and its possible correlation with the clinical stage of liver disease. J Infect Dis; 189: 1151-1157.
  83. Yan, H, Zhong, G. and Xu G. (2012). Sodium taurocholato transporting polypeptide is a functional receptor for human hepatitis B and D virus. eLife;1:e00049.
  84. Yurdaydin, C. (2017). Recent advances in managing hepatitis D [version 1; referees: 2 approved] F1000Research 2017, 6 (F1000 Faculty Rev):1596
  85. Zaidi, G., Muhammad, Fayyaz, A., Iram, A., Muhammad, S., Saima, Y, Rashid, H., Zunaira, A., Aaliyah, T. and Khalida P. (2010). Prevalence of hepatitis delta virus infection among hepatitis B virus surface antigen positive patients circulating in the largest population of pakistan. VirolJourn; 7:283
  86. Zampino, R., Boemio, A., Sagnelli, C., Alessio, L., Adinolfi, L., Sagnelli, E. and Coppola N. (2015). Hepatitis B virus burden in developing countries. World J Gastroenterol; 21(42): 11941-11953.
How to Cite

Abiola, K. A. (2018). Hepatitis D Virus: An Important Viral Agent in Hepatitis B Virus Endemic Regions a Review. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, 32(1), 4183-4192. https://doi.org/10.67614/njm.2018.z3anp8x1

K. A. Abiola, "Hepatitis D Virus: An Important Viral Agent in Hepatitis B Virus Endemic Regions a Review," Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 4183-4192, June 2018. doi: 10.67614/njm.2018.z3anp8x1

Share this article:
Facebook X / Twitter LinkedIn
Download PDF View Full Text (PDF) Back to Articles