Published Articles

Abstract: Nigeria has a population of over 200 million people of which 1% of the population are enrolled in universities. Microbiology is a course with a high enrolment rate among undergraduates. The field is a vital discipline focusing on the study of microorganisms and their role in health, industry, environment, agriculture, climate change and other relevant sector and it has a potential of revolutionising medicine and the fate of a disease outbreak if the right research is conducted. However, microbiology education in Nigeria is faced with a lot of challenges which slow down the progress of the discipline and has negative impacts on the training of future microbiology leaders. The COVID-19 pandemic brought about closure of schools which put extra load on the already deficient education system and microbiology education is not left behind. The aim of this paper is to examine the challenges faced by microbiology education in Nigeria and explore the opportunities for improvement.
Keywords: Microbiology, Education, COVID-19, Pandemic, STEM, Nigeria

Abstract: Garri is a granular pre-gelatinized cassava starch with slightly fermented flavour and slightly sour taste made from grated, fermented fresh cassava tubers. It serves as staple food in many parts of Nigeria. This work studied the effect of fermentation and palm oil on the nutritional compositions of garri produced by traditional fermentation Method (TFM) and Instant Mechanical Method (IMM). Cassava tubers of TME 419 variety were used to produce garri using the two methods and with addition of palm oil to the bag before dewatering and the pot during toasting. For garri processed by TFM, the cassava tubers were peeled with knife, washed with tap water and grated. The cassava mash produced was allowed to stay for 24 hours in a bag before it was dewatered using heavy woods. It was allowed to ferment in the bag for 96 hrs and then toasted. For the garri produced by IMM, the cassava tubers were peeled with knife, washed with tap water and grated. The cassava mash produced was not allowed to ferment but was dewatered using heavy woods after grating and then toasted. The microbial load of the garri mash from both the TFM and IMM was determined by inoculating 0.1 ml aliquots of serially diluted cassava mash in triplicate to appropriate media. For the isolation of bacteria, 0.1 ml aliquots was inoculated by spread plate method on sterile Nutrient, MacConkey, Salmonella-Shigella, Mannitol Salt and and De Mann Rogosa Sharpe Agar plates and incubated for 48 hrs at 35^oC. For isolation of fungi, 0.1 ml aliquots were inoculated on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) and incubated for 5 days at 22^oC. The colonies formed from both groups of isolates were sub-cultured on the same media and characterized through biochemical and sugar fermentation tests. The nutritional composition of the garri sample was determined using standard procedures. Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhimuriun, Shigella dysentriae, Lactobacillus fermentum and Leuconostoc mesenteriodes were the bacteria isolated from the grated cassava mash during fermentation while the fungal isolates are Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani, Penicillium notatum and Saccharomyce cerevisiae. The highest bacterial load from the IMM (3.50 x 10⁵ cfu/g) was from cassava mash without palm oil while the least (1.87 x 10⁵ 10⁵ cfu/g) was from the mash mixed with palm oil before toasting. The highest bacterial load (2.60 x 10⁵ CFU/g) from mashes produced using TFM was from the mash produced without palm oil while the lowest value (1.80 x 10⁵ CFU/g) was from the mash to which palm oil was added during toasting. After fermentation, only Bacillus, Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc species were isolated while S. cerevisiae was the only fungus isolated. The garri produced from cassava that was fermented had a significantly higher carbohydrate and fats contents (87.29 and 3.07 respectively) than that produced by IMM. Addition of palm oil and the time of addition had no significant effect (P<0.05) on the protein, fibre and ash contents of the garri produced through fermentation. There was a significant reduction in hydrogen cyanide content of the garri samples produced through fermentation compared with the garri produced by IMM. In conclusion, the garri produced through fermentation has no pathogen/food spoilage organism in it. The hydrogen cyanide content was found to be reduced to tolerable limit and it has higher carbohydrate content.
Keywords: Cassava tubers, food safety, garri, microorganisms, nutritional composition, traditional fermentation

Abstract: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a current health menace that strikes at the core of infectious disease control, and has potential to affect every aspect of healthcare systems, as well as impact the food chain in terms of the evolution and transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria of public health risk. This study investigated antimicrobial drug resistance in strains of Salmonella spp. isolated from pig effluents in Abakaliki, Nigeria. Standard microbiology techniques including microscopy, biochemical testing and culture on Salmonella-Shigella agar (SSA) was used for the isolation of forty strains of Salmonella species from the pig-effluent-samples. Antibiogram studies were conducted by modified disk diffusion technique; and multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) was determined. Our results shows that resistance of Salmonella spp. to beta-lactam agents was most common, including amoxicillin (97.5%), oxacillin (100%), vancomycin (100%) and penicillin (95%). The Salmonella spp. was highly resistant to chloramphenicol (90%); and the strains exhibited multiple resistances to at least 3 antibiotic classes. This preliminary study has shown that Salmonella spp. of pig origin is highly resistant to some first- and second-line antibiotics used in clinical medicine. Our next step is to use genomics to characterize the genes responsible for multiple antibiotic resistances in the Salmonella spp. Since AMR increasingly threaten human health, it is important to detect and report drug resistance to guide therapy. We recommend alternative approaches that eliminate antibiotic use in livestock
Keywords: Multidrug Resistance, One Health, Livestock, Salmonella

Abstract: Yoghurt is one of the famous fermented milk preparations. It is the most widely available fermented milk in Western World where its popularity derives more from its flavor versatility. Lactic Acid Bacteria isolated from fermented cow and human Breast milk using MRS agar medium were used to produce yoghurt samples. LAB from commercially prepared yoghurt purchased from the market were used to produce yoghurt which was used as a control for comparison with yoghurts produced using LAB sourced from cow and human breast milk samples. Cow and breast-milk samples were serially diluted and plated out on the MRS Agar using pour plate method. The isolates and the commercially acquired Lactic Acid Bacteria were used to produce yoghurt samples from powdered milk in an 8 hours fermentation process. The fermented product was compared against the commercial product in terms of both nutritional and sensory attributes. The LAB were Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Bifidobacteium. The isolates were used singly as starter cultures. The optimum pH for the Yoghurt production was 5.5 while the optimum temperature is 40^oC. The Yoghurt sample C had the highest pH (6.60 ± 0.00; P≤0.05) and highest moisture content (88.10 ± 0.04; P≤0.05), the highest protein content was from sample A and D (control). Sample A had the highest crude fat (0.85 ± 0.00; P≤0.05) ash content was highest in sample D (control) (3.29 ± 0.05; P≤0.05) and the fibre content of the Yoghurt was: 0.14 ± 0.02; P≤0.05. We conclude that the protein content of the yoghurt produced with L. acidophilus has the same protein content with the commercially sourced yoghurt but with lower fats, ash and carbohydrate contents. So, the yoghurt produced with L. acidophilus will be a good source of protein to the consumers. The laboratory and commercially produced yoghurts had equal level of acceptability to the panelists.
Keywords: fermentation, lactic acid bacteria, proximate, powered milk, sensory, yoghurt

Abstract: Kulikuli (peanut cake) is a known street snacks prone to fungal infestation due to poor production, handling and storage measures. The study aimed at evaluating the fungal quality of packaged and ginger spiced kulikuli consumed in Umuahia, metropolis, Abia State. Twenty four samples of kulikuli were sourced randomly from markets and supermarkets in Umuahia. Standard methods were adopted to assay the incidence of fungi, fungal load and moisture content of the kulikuli samples. Fungal isolates were identified based on their microscopic and cultural morphology. The moisture content ranged from 4.4 ± 0.03 - 6.3 ± 0.2%, and the total fungal load ranged from 1.7 ± 0.5 - 5.2 ± 0.7 x 105 CFU/g. Forty eight morphologically distinct fungi that belong to 5 genera (Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus and Fusarium) were isolated. Aspergillus had the highest percentage of occurrence (35.4%) and the least occurring genus was Fusarium (8.3%). The least numbers of fungi 4 (8.3%) was recovered from packaged ginger spiced samples. This study suggest that kulikuli should be properly handled, packaged and spiced with appropriate quantity of herbs so as to reduce mould contamination of the snacks.
Keywords: Kulikuli; Fungi; Packaged; Ginger, Contamination.

Abstract: The sensory and organoleptic quality of fermented catfish (Clarias gariepinus) was studied after a fermentation period of three (3) days. Four whole fresh catfishes were fermented using roasted ground rice, sugar and salt, and distributed into four separate jars with spice treatments: FG (15 g ginger), FT (15g turmeric), FP (15 g pepper) and control (FC) (0 g). They were then covered airtight and left to ferment in a cool and dry environment for three days. After the fermentation, they were fried till golden brown. They were then presented to a panel and assessed for sensory and organoleptic quality using parameters of color, taste and aroma on a nine-point scale. FP (15 g pepper) had the highest values of overall acceptability (8.2/9), then FG (15 g ginger) had a score of 7.9/9, closely followed by FT (15 g turmeric) which had a score of 7.8/9. The least score for sensory rating was observed in the control (FC) (0g) at 6.5/9. Statistical analysis of results revealed significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in all parameters assessed. The use of spices, especially ginger, turmeric and pepper in fermenting catfish is recommended in order to enhance organoleptic properties. It was concluded that fermented fish has favorable organoleptic properties and is appropriate for introduction into Nigerian cuisine.
Keywords: catfish, fermentation, organoleptic properties, sensory evaluation, spices.

Abstract: Oxidative and microbial spoilage affect the nutritional quality of poultry products. White pepper (WP) and cayenne pepper (CP) powders possess antioxidative and antimicrobial properties, therefore, prompting an investigation into the activity of dietary peppers on proximate, oxidative and microbial profile of broiler chicken meat and sausage subjected to refrigeration storage. At the expiration of feeding 336 randomly allotted chickens seven diets (Control (C) and six other diets), fifty-six (56) birds (two per replicate) were selected and feed-fasted for 12 hours before slaughter. Post-slaughter, meat and sausage proximate were immediately analysed, but aseptically collected meat samples and raw sausage stored in sterile plastic bags were transferred to the Microbiology Laboratory of the Department of Veterinary Medicine and analysed for malondialdehyde (MDA) and microbial [Escherichia sp, Salmonella sp, Enterococcus sp, Lactobacillus sp, Staphylococcus sp, Pseudomonas sp and Saccharomyces sp] assessments following standard laboratory procedure. Proximate composition of Meat and sausage were not influenced (p>0.05) by additives, but MDA and microbial counts were affected (p<0.05). C+250WP diet lowered meat MDA. Groups fed with WP diets were as effective as the Control against Escherichia coli and E. faecalis. Salmonella typhimurium was repressed by all groups excluding C+250WP and C+100WP+100CP. On day (D) 0, all pepper-fed groups had lower Staphylococcus aureus than the Control, while C+200CP had lower total bacterial count than the Control. C+200CP and C+250CP groups had no Saccharomyces cerevisiae like the Control, while Sausage from Control and C+250WP groups exhibited identical impact against Saccharomyces cerevisiae on D 28. Chicken sausage from the Control, C+200WP, C+200CP and C+250CP groups inhibited fungi growth.
Keywords: white + cayenne pepper powder; malondialdehyde count; microbial load; refrigeration storage, Meat quality, Sausage

Abstract: Senna occidentalis is widely used by herbalists in northern Nigeria for the treatment of microbial diseases. This study determined the phytochemical constituents and antibacterial activities of aqueous extracts of the leaf and seed of S. occidentalis against some selected clinical pathogens. The Leaf and seed were reduced to powder and extracted by maceration using sterile distilled water. Extracts were concentrated using rotary evaporator and freeze drier. Phytochemical screening was conducted using standard methods while antibacterial activities were determined using the agar well diffusion method. The diameter of the zones of inhibition of bacterial growth was assessed as an index for antibacterial properties of the extracts against the selected bacteria. The phytochemical screening of the leaf and seed revealed the presence of flavonoids (33 % and 22 %), alkaloids (3.6% and 6%), saponins (1.2 % and 2.1 %), phenols (0.036 mg/mL and 0.042 mg/mL) and glycosides (2.68 mg/mL and 2.02 mg/mL) respectively, while steroids and tannins were absent in both. Both leaf and seed extracts exhibited significant (p<0.05) antibacterial activities at all the concentrations used (200mg/mL, 150mg/mL, 100mg/mL, and 50mg/mL) against the selected Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Salmonella Typhi, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) as compared to the standard antibiotic (Amoxicillin 10mg/mL) used as positive control. The antibacterial activities of the extracts increased significantly with increase in concentration for all organisms and the seed extracts were most active with mean inhibitory activity between 19-32mm compared to the leaf extracts with mean inhibitory activity between 12-31mm except E. coli where the leaf extracts were more potent (20, 25, 28, 31 mm) than the seed’s (19, 22, 25, 32 mm) at concentrations ≤150 mg/mL. Hence, aqueous extracts of both plant parts possess the potential to be used as antibiotics to treat selected microbial diseases.
Keywords: Antimicrobial activities, phytochemical screening, plant extracts, Senna occidentalis, traditional medicine

Abstract: The study was conducted to determine the occurrence of fungal agents associated with clinical mastitis (CM) in Red Sokoto does (RSD) at the Sokoto livestock market and their antifungal susceptibility pattern. A total of 71 RSD was identified and examined for mastitis. Milk samples were collected for fungal isolation, identification and antifungal susceptibility testing. Thirty-one (43.66%) of the RSD were clinically mastitic. There was more bilateral mastitis 24(77.4%) than unilateral 6(19.4%) and trilateral 1(3.2%) mastitis. RSD ≥ 4 years were the major age group with CM, followed by ≥ 3 - <4 years with 5 mastitic RSD. Only 2(6.5%) RSD had teat injury, while information on parity, onset of condition and type of management system were not available. Seven (22.6%) RSD had fungal agents, although 17 fungal isolates comprising 5(29.4%) each of Aspergillus niger and Fusarium chlamydosporum were isolated. In addition, 4 (23.5%) isolates of Histoplasma capsulatum and 1(5.9%) each of Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans were isolated from the clinically mastitic does. The antifungal susceptibility showed that amphotericin was effective against A. niger, Fusarium chlamydosporium, H. capsulatum and A. fumigatus, but C. albicanss and C. neoformans were resistant. A. niger, F. chlamydosporium and H. capsulatum were susceptible to fluconazole, while A. fumigatus, C. albicanss and C. neoformans were resistant. Only A. niger, H. capsulatum and A. fumigatus were susceptible to nystatin, while all the fungi isolated were resistant to terbinafine and Voriconazole. The study demonstrates high frequency of fungal agents in RSD with clinical mastitis.
Keywords: Antifungal susceptibility, Clinical mastitis, Fungal agent, Livestock market

Abstract: This study assessed and compared the antimicrobial activity of honey to that of some commonly used antibiotics in Ebonyi State, against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus mirabilis isolated from wounds. Fifty two (52) wound samples, were collected from patients at General Hospital Uburu, Ebonyi State. Wound samples were collected using sterile swab sticks. The bacteria species were isolated and identified by standard microbiological methods. Antibiotics Susceptibility test was performed by Kirby-Bauer-CLSI modified Disc Agar Diffusion method, while agar well diffusion technique was used to assess the in vitro activity of the honey against the test bacteria. Results, showed that the three (3) bacteria species were prevalent in the wound samples as follows; Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16(30.8%), Staphylococcus aureus 11(21.2%) and Proteus mirabilis 2(3.9%). Result of the antibiotics susceptibility tests, showed that all (100%) of the bacteria species were susceptibility to imipenem. Some Staphylococcus aureus isolates were susceptible to the other antibiotics while being totally (100%) resistant to ceftriaxone. Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed degrees of susceptibility to the other antibiotics. Proteus mirabilis was found to show 50% susceptibility to meropenem and ofloxacine, while being totally (100%) resistant to the other antibiotics. On the other hand, the honey sample inhibited the growth of all the test organisms producing inhibitory zone diameters in the range of > 10mm to 29mm. This suggests that the honey sample used was active against the test bacteria, and can be used as an alternative way of treating wounds infected, with the tested organisms in the locality.
Keywords: Antibiotics, Honey, Infection, Honey, Patients, Wound.

Abstract: Diarrhoea diseases remain the second leading cause of death among children under five years globally. Nearly one in every five child deaths are due to diarrhoea, further compounded by antimicrobial resistance. As a result, better understanding of childhood diarrhoea occurrence can perhaps help reduce associated morbidity and mortality rates. This study was conducted to determine the multiple antibiotic resistance indices of Shigella flexineri and Salmonella enterica from diarrhoeic children less than five years from selected hospitals in Kaduna. A total of 264 stool samples were collected from children attending selected hospitals in the Kaduna metropolis. Standard methods involving microbiological, biochemical and molecular analysis using PCR and 16S rRNA molecular characterizations were employed in identifying bacteria associated with diarrhoea in children (0-5) years. Out of the 264 stools examined, a total of 162 (61.4%) were from males, while 102 (38.6%) were from females. The highest incidence was observed in children of 1-24 months of age and the least in children of 4-5 years of age. A total of 97 stool samples (36.7%) were positive for Shigella and Salmonella species, out of which 97, 60(22.7%) were Shigella and 37(14%) Salmonella. The multiple antimicrobial resistance index of these isolates revealed that 100% of the isolates had a MAR index of 0.5 and above, and showed significant resistance against Augmentin, Amoxacillin, Ampicillin-Cloxacillin (Ampiclox) Erythromycin and Gentamycin. The least resistance was observed against imipenem (45%). The high Multiple Antibiotic Resistance index of the isolates indicates previous exposure to antibiotics and the development of resistance to commonly prescribed antibiotics.
Keywords: Diarrhoea, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella enterica, Multiple Antibiotic Resistance (MARI).

Abstract: Adansonia digitata and Borerria verticillata are medicinal plants used to treat different types of diseases. The aim of this study was to extract and screen the roots of both plants for phytochemical constituents, to access their cytotoxicity using Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay and to determine the functional groups present in them by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) technique. The method of cold maceration was used for the extraction. The extracts were subjected to phytochemical screening to determine the classes of secondary metabolites present in the plant materials. The Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay (BSLA) was carried out to observe the cytotoxic effect of the extracts and were analyzed for characteristic functional groups using Fourier Transmission Infra-red (FTIR) spectrophotometry. Both root extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, phenols, glycosides, saponins, steroids and reducing sugars while there was absence of flavonoids in both and terpenoids in B. verticillata root extract. The result of BSLA revealed LC₅₀ values of 94.984µg/ml and 0.246µg/ml for ADR and BVR respectively. FTIR spectroscopic investigation showed the presence of 13 and 15 characteristic peak values with different useful mixtures of 12 functional groups. An intense peak of 2002cm^-1 and 2005 cm^-1 for BVR and ADR respectively were observed in the FTIR spectra which corresponds to carboxylic acid groups. The results indicated the presence of potent cytotoxic, bioactive and probably anti-tumor components of these plants. Thus, the results of the study highlight the ethnotherapeutic importance of Adansonia digitata and Borerria verticillata roots.
Keywords: Adansonia digitata, Borerria verticillata, phytochemical constituents, Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Abstract: The study assessed the prevalence and risk factors affecting the transmission of soil transmitted helminthiasis among school age children in Unwana and Akpoha commuties of Afikpo North Local Government Area of Ebonyi State. The study involved stool examination for infective stages of soil transmitted helminth using zinc sulphate flotation technique. Ascaris lumbricoide, Trichura trichuris and Ancylostoma duodenale were observed. The overall prevalence rate was 71.6%. The sex related distribution of these helminthes showed the males were more infected 502 (50.2%) than the females 498 (49.8%). However, there was no statistical significant difference with respect to sex (p > 0.05%). The study further showed that 12 years old had the highest prevalence of 195 (39.0%) while ages 8 and 13 had the least occurrence 139 (17.8%). This difference is a gain not statistically significantly at p=0.05 Geohelminths distribution in relation to class showed that primary four (4) had the highest prevalence of 352 (70.4%) whereas primary five (5) recorded the least prevalence 297 (59.4%). The study concluded that risk factors obtained from the questionnaire such as unhealthy personal and poor environmental sanitation were the major factors that enhanced helminthiasis and its mode of transmission. It is therefore imperative that education to parents and mass anti-helminthic drugs administration programs be enlisted to these areas to help reduce the rate of infection among primary school children.
Keywords: Akpoha, Prevalence, Soil transmitted helminthiasis, Unwana, Zinc sulphate flotation

Abstract: This study determined the antibiogram and extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production potentials of E. coli species isolated from houseflies from hospital, restaurant and fruit market environments in Abakaliki metropolis. A total of 150 samples (50 from each sample site) were analyzed using Standard Microbiological Methods. Antibiotic susceptibility profile of the isolates was determined using disc diffusion method. ESBL production was screened using Double Disc Synergy Test (DDST). A total of 12 isolates of E. coli were obtained. Of the 12 isolates, 6(50 %) were obtained from hospital while 3(25 %) each were respectively isolated from fruit market and restaurant environments. The antibiotic susceptibility and resistance patterns of E. coli isolated from the three environments (hospital, fruit market and restaurant) to different antibiotics showed that meropenem (100 %) had the highest activity while 100% resistance to ceftriaxone, ampicillin-sulbactam and cefoxitin were recorded. Resistance of the isolates from hospital to gentamicin up to 83.33 % was also recorded. Their susceptibility to other antibiotics used including nalixidic acid, ciprofloxacin, cefoxitin, ceftaxidime, gentamicin, ceftriaxone, sulfamethoxazoletrimetoprim, cefotaxime and ampicillin-sulbactam ranged from 16.67 % to 66.67 %. The extended spectrum beta-lactamase screening showed that none of the isolates tested positive. In conclusion, the study revealed that houseflies from hospital, fruit market and restaurant environments harbor multidrug resistant E. coli and that the multidrug resistance were not ESBL mediated.
Keywords: Antibiotic resistance, ESBLs, fruit market, hospital, houseflies, restaurant

Abstract: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) continues to be is a potentially life-threatening infectious disease transmitted from mother to child. The study aimed to evaluate the seroprevalence of Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), among pregnant mothers attending antenatal clinics (ANC) at a General Hospital in Bichi LGA, Kano State, Nigeria. A total of 125 pregnant women were screened for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kit. Of the 125 pregnant mothers screened in the study, 11 (8.8%) were found to be seropositive for HBsAg. Subjects aged 36 – 45 years had the highest seroprevalence (2/7) (28.6%). The study only shows a statistically significant relationship between the incidence of HBV infection and sharing of sharp objects among all the observed possible risk factors (P=0.0120). This findings emphasizes the need for increased public awareness measures to prevent the transmission from mother to her newborn baby.
Keywords: Hepatitis B surface antigen, Pregnant Mother, Seroprevalence.

Abstract: In 2019 the outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was first reported in Wuhan, China, and afterwards spread worldwide. The disease was confirmed to be a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In most cases the human coronaviruses have their origin from animal which are called their natural hosts. The natural hosts of the following Coronaviruses, HCoV-229E, SARS CoV, HCoV-NL63, and MERS-CoV is from bat, while these, HCoV-OC43 and HKU1 may have originated from rodents. The α and β – coronaviruses have their origin and major natural reservoir from Bats. However, several scientific reports validated the hypothesis that the Malayan pangolin might carry a novel Coronavirus that has unique similarity to SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 has been observed to continuously change through mutation. Several variants of SARS-CoV-2 with diverse sets of mutations have been detected globally. Several mutations are being monitored while others have been de-escalated because they are extinct or no longer in circulation. Authorized vaccines have been developed against the COVID-19 such as Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna and these vaccines are mRNA vaccines that penetrates the muscle cells and gives instructions to the cell machinery to produce non-toxic part of S-Protein.
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, evolution, variants, mutation

Abstract: Extended-spectrum Beta-lactamases (ESBLs) producing bacteria have been identified as a major cause of hospital-acquired infections that can have serious clinical consequences, including multiple drug resistance. This study aimed to screen hospital laboratory equipment for extended-spectrum betalactamase-producing bacteria. A total of sixty (60) samples were collected by swabbing various surfaces of hospital equipment using sterile swab sticks. The bacterial species were isolated and identified using standard microbiological procedures. The bacterial isolates were then subjected to an antibiotic susceptibility test on Mueller Hinton agar using the Kirby Bauer disc diffusion technique. Subsequent screening for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production was done using the double disc synergy test. This study revealed that a total of twenty-five (25) bacterial strains were isolated from the hospital laboratory equipment, among which Escherichia coli 10 (40%) were the most predominant bacteria specie isolated. This was followed by Staphylococcus aureus 7 (28.0%) and Salmonella spp. 4 (16.0%), the least isolated bacteria were Bacillus spp. 1 (4.0%). The distribution of these isolates among the equipment showed that the incubator had the highest number and percentage of bacteria isolates (64.0%), while the least was recorded for centrifuge 3 (12.0%). The multidrug resistance profile showed that Escherichia coli was highly resistant to the antibiotics tested at an index rate of 0.6. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production was observed in Salmonella spp 3 (75.0%), Escherichia coli 2 (20.0%), and Klebsiella spp. 1 (33.3%) The study identified that multidrug-resistant and ESBL-producing bacteria species were present in hospital laboratory equipment and their occurrence on these equipments poses important healthcareassociated problems as they serve as a major cause of nosocomial infections. This therefore, requires strict infection control measures and careful selection of therapy in the study area to prevent the spread of these pathogens.
Keywords: Laboratory equipment, Resistance, Hospital, Bacteria, Beta-lactamase

Abstract: An assessment of outdoor bio-aerosols and particulate exposure was carried out to study and determine the association of the particulates and the organic matter. This was carried out at Trans Amadi industrial area of Port Harcourt where most outdoor sources of atmospheric particles are emitted, due to industrial activities. Seven locations were established for sampling which consist of Azuabie Market, Abuloma Jetty, Jenny & Jessy Street, Mother Cat, Rivoc Road, Royal Palm Estate, and Slaughter/Coca Cola Axis. The condition of temperature, humidity, cloud cover, wind speed and other air pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), ozone (O₃), ammonia (NH₃), and particulate matter (PM 2.5) and (PM 10) were considered. Bio-aerosols were determined by open plate sedimentation technique where a prepared culture media plate was opened for 20 minutes for microbes to settle. The study showed abundance and diversity of microorganisms in the atmosphere of the industrial polluted area. PM 10 was significantly higher than other pollutants with 610.97 at Jenny & Jessy Street and Rivoc Road while PM 2.5 was 498.96 at Jenny & Jessy Street and Rivoc Road, followed by Royal Palm Estate with 386.6. The minimum and maximum temperature values in all sampling sites was between 25-35^oC during the sampling time, while the relative humidity was within 37-72%. Wind speed in all sampled sites was 0.78-1.9 m/s. Cloud cover was 47-76% while ozone (O³) was higher at 131.1 μg/m³ at Jenny & Jessy Street and Rivoc Road followed by Azuabie Market which was 114.4 μg/m³. The result revealed isolation of four fungal isolates and nine bacterial isolates including Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillum sp, and Micrococcus sp, Klebsiella sp, Streptococcus sp, Pseudomonas sp, Staphylococcus sp, Bacillus sp, Shigella sp, Enterobacter sp, Escherichia coli, were observed.This study has presented evidence of biological aerosols in soot deteriorated outdoor ambient air.
Keywords: Bioaerosols, Soot-pollution, PM_2.5-10 concentration, Public-Health, Bacteria, Fungi.

Abstract: Yoghurt is a widely accepted and consumed fermented dairy product, rich in protein, vitamins and essential minerals. There could be variation in nutritional properties of yoghurt, which could be due to variation in milk properties, or type of starter culture used. Three (3) high yielding EPS Lactobacillus spp. from a previous study were used for yoghurt production. The produced yoghurt samples were subjected to physicochemical, proximate, and elemental analysis using standard methods. The produced yoghurt had pH values in the range, 4.05- 4.92, Titratable acidity (0.90 – 1.45%), viscosity (1441 - 8121 cps) and syneresis (8.36 -17.40%) which significantly differed at 95% confidence level. Proximate content analysis indicated all the yoghurt to be of low fat (1-3%), with good protein content in the range 3.34 and 4.20%, mean ash contents and total solids content of yoghurt were, 0.49% and 20.63% respectively. The yoghurt samples had varying values of trace elements, Phosphorus, Zinc, Calcium and Potassium in the range of; 44.38 - 45.05ppm, 0.21 -0.38ppm, 65.53 - 79.87ppm, 107.6 -183.85ppm for each respectively. These isolates were able to produce yoghurt with desirable properties (Physicochemical, proximate, and trace elements), comparable to the control yoghurt produced with standard starter culture; and were within acceptable limits of FDA. These strains could be considered as adjunct or potential starter culture candidates for yoghurt production.
Keywords: Yoghurt, Kano, Lactobacillus spp. Nutritional properties.

Abstract: This study was intended to find the extent of occurrence and prevalence of carbapenem resistance Pseudomonas aeruginosa from urine samples from both clinical and non-clinical settings in Ebonyi state. A cross sectional study was carried out from April-December 2021 in Alex-Ekwueme Federal University Microbiology Laboratory Ebonyi State amongst individuals using a pre-tested, selfadministered questionnaire. A total of 185 urine samples were isolated from three (3) health institutions and four communities all in Ebonyi state and isolation of microorganisms and proper identification were done using standard microbial techniques. The sensitivity of the isolated organisms to commonly used antibiotics (Oxoid, UK) was determined by Kirby-Bauer diffusion method. Results for ESBL production shows that of the 185 isolates under study, ESBL production was seen in 35.7% (66/185) Pseudomonas aeruginosa by MDDST, only Cefepime and no other third generational Cephalosporins showed synergism with amoxicillin-clavulanate to five isolates of P. aeruginosa. Out of 185 Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates, 32(17.3%) were carbapenem resistant, while 12(6.5%) of the isolates were confirmed as carbapenemases producers. DNA extraction of New-Delhi Metallo beta-lactamase genes (NDM-1) using Agarose gel electrophoresis shows that New-Delhi Metallo beta-lactamase genes were present at Lane 6 of NDM-1 gene band (950bp) and Lane A represents the 100bp molecular ladder of 1500bp. This increase in resistance and the presence of NDM-1 genes can be attributed to abuse of antibiotics in humans and animal settings. Hence formulation of good policy, usage of antibiotics by government agency is advocated and it’s monitoring and enforcement encouraged
Keywords: Antibiotics, Resistance, Kirby-Bauer, Carbapenem, Modified double disc synergy test (MDDST). New-Delhi Metallo beta-lactamase (NDM), Occurrence.

Abstract: This study was designed to isolate and characterize pathogenic bacteria from fish samples from Niger, Otuocha and Amansea rivers using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing approaches. Thirty-two fishes (16 tilapia and 16 catfish) were sampled from the three rivers. The intestines (one gram each) of all the fish samples were screened for the presence of pathogenic microbes of green colonies using Aeromonas agar base (Sigma) enriched with Ampicillin for selectivity. The extraction and sequencing of 16s rRNA of the pure isolates was done in GeneWiz laboratory USA. Polymerase chain reaction was used to assay for haemolysin gene and microscope for their morphological characteristics respectively. Basic local ailment tool (BLAST) compared the 16s rRNA sequences with the ones in the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Database. Results showed that 99% of the catfish samples grew with green colouration and were resistant to ampicillin, while none of the tilapia samples showed any form of growth on the selective media. BLAST analysis of the 16s rRNA sequences showed pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae spp. (Citrobacter freundi, Enterobacter cloacae and Serratia rubidaea) and Ochrobactrum anthropi bacteria in the catfish samples which were 99% identical with 16s rRNA sequences. They were haemolysin negative and microscopic result showed the isolates to be rod shaped and motile. The study showed that 99% of the catfish samples contained more than one pathogenic microorganism. These findings serve for awareness creation to fish consumers, handlers and processor in order to guide against such infectious microbes.
Keywords: Fish Pathogens, Molecular Characterization, Sequencing, River Niger

Abstract: Complications in UTIs have increased among women due to the increased ability of E coli to produce ESBL, which makes treatment difficult due to multidrug resistance. This research was undertaken to detect ESBL genes in E .coli from women with UTI. Bacteria were isolated from urine samples using Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMB) and identified using biochemical tests. Antimicrobial resistance was determined using the disk diffusion method with different classes of antibiotics. Isolates were screened for ESBL production using the CLSI protocol and suspected ESBL producers were confirmed using the double disc synergy method. Detection and characterization of ESBL genes were done by single Polymerase chain reaction method. Results showed that 95 (34.17%) women tested positive for UTI, with 51( 53.68) being E .coli positive and 44 ( 46. 31% ) being other bacteria. Women with fistula had the highest prevalence of E. coli [ 30 (58.8% ) ] while women with diabetes had the least[2 (3.9%)]. Infection with E. coli was statistically significant among women with Fistula, pregnancy, HIV and diabetes (P = 0.0001, 0.002, 0.003 and 0.001 respectively). All the strains of E. coli showed high resistance to Beta lactams and other commonly used classes of antibiotics including the Carbapenems. Prevalence of ESBLs was 23.52%, while ESBL genes detected include TEM 8 (66.66%), TEM & CTX 2 ( 16 .66% ). The SHV gene was not detected while 2 of the isolates could not be recovered for the test.
Keywords: ESBL, Resistance Genes, E. coli, Women, Nigeria

Abstract: Background: The need to develop an ecologically friendly and efficient approach of removing contaminants from polluted soil has been a major area of interest to save the environment. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of Pleurotus ostreatus on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and heavy metal concentrations of lubricating oil-amended soil. The white-rot fungus pre-grown on saw dust was investigated for its potential to remediate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and accumulate heavy metals in 20 % (v/v) unused and used lubricating oil-amended soil after 30, 60 and 90 days of incubation at 280C. Results obtained revealed an overall reduction of 69.52 % and 85.59 % PAH in treatment 1 and treatment 2 accordingly. There was also an overall reduction in heavy metal concentrations of the different heavy metals analyzed. Lead(Pb) reduced by 91.92 % and 63.45 %, zinc(Zn) reduced by 67.11 % and 70.08 %, copper(Cu) reduced by 49.58 % and 62.01 % while iron(Fe) also reduced by 62.42 % and 64.07 % after 90 days of incubation with P. ostreatus for treatment 1 and treatment 2 respectively. The significant reduction in the concentration of PAH and heavy metals over the time of incubation with Pleurotus ostreatus indicates that effective mycoremediation could be achieved using Pleurotus ostreatus to restore an impacted soil.
Keywords: Pleurotus ostreatus, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, lubricating oil, contaminants, soil.

Abstract: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infected pregnant women are susceptible to a variety of infections including toxoplasmosis with high potential of the parasite to cause severe complications. This study was aimed at determining the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis among HIV infected pregnant women in Kano-Nigeria. The study was conducted at Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital (AKTH). A cross sectional study was used to recruit 273 HIV seropositive pregnant women for the study. Standard procedures were used to screen these patients for T. gondii antibodies (IgG/IgM) including determination of the CD4 cell counts. The seroprevalence was found to be 30.8% for IgG and 3.3% for IgM while the overall prevalence was 34.1%. The prevalence of anti-toxoplasma IgG according to the age of the subjects showed highest prevalence (40%) among the age group 11-20. Those from the rural areas had the highest prevalence of 33.3% and 5.3% both for IgG and IgM compared to the urban dwellers. There is a significant statistical association between the latent infection of T. gondii (IgG) and contact with cats (P=0.00). Strong relationship between IgG and poorly cooked meats was further established (P=0.00). Seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection is higher (72.4%) in those with CD4 cell count of <200 cells/mls. The results of this study indicated that HIV infected pregnant women could be at higher risks of Sero-conversion from chronic form (IgG) of T. gondii infection to the acute form (IgM) and that the detection of IgM antibodies is of great concern because IgM is associated with serious consequences on the fetus.
Keywords: Toxoplasmosis, HIV infected pregnant women, Seroprevalence, Toxoplasma gondii