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Citric acid production by Aspergillus niger isolated from spoilt beans using cane molasses was investigated. The spoilt bean on SDA media produced Aspergillus niger from which Citric acid was produced using submerged fermentation technique. The sensory properties of the Citric acid produced from A. niger indicated dark coloration with pH values of 3.55 as the minimum and 5.19 as the maximum. The total titrable acidity (TTA) in solid state fermentation by A. niger during Citric acid production was carried out, and the data obtained are mean values, with minimum value of 1.03 and maximum 2.55. Hence, the curve of TTA against the fermentation days showed that, as the fermentation day increases the volume of NaOH required to neutralize the acidity content in the fermentation medium also increases, but decreases at the 7th day. The concentration of Citric acid observed for the number of days of fermentation showed that the yield of the Citric acid increases with the number of days across the flasks, which have the minimum concentration value to be 0.05g/L at day 1, but different maximum values which are 0.24, 0.12, 0.13 and 0.12g/L at days 7, 5, 7 and 7 respectively. The microbial load in flasks 1, 2 and 4 were within the range of 10-19 cfu/g, while flask 3 showed an increase up to 38 cfu/g which is a significant increase compared to the other 3 flasks. The confirmatory test showed that flask 1, 2 and 4 produced Citric acid, while the flask 3 gave a negative result. This study showed that cane molasses is a suitable medium for biosynthesis of Citric acid by Aspergillis niger due to its nutritional content

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The study was carried out to isolate and identify Coliform bacteria from well water situated in Lapai metropolis. Fifteen (15)samples of well water, used for domestic purposes were collected from different well water points within Lapai metropolis. Most Probable Number was used for enumeration of Coliform, Cultured on Nutrient agar and Eosin methylene blue (EMB) Agar. The isolates were subjected to series of biochemical tests for possible identification. The physicochemical parameters analyzed were pH, Temperature, and Turbidity. The MPN coliform index per 100ml of the water samples ranged from 0-1100+. The Bacteria isolated from well water samples included, Escherichia coli (26.7 %,) Citrobacter sp (13.3%), Shigella sp (13.3%), Salmonella sp(6.7%), Klebsiella sp (20.0%), Serratia sp (13.3%), and Enterobacter sp(6.7%). The percentage occurrence of the isolates indicated that E. coli was predominant with 26.7%, the least occurrence of the isolates were Salmonella sp, and Enterobacter . sp with 6.7% each. The highest temperature recorded for the samples was 25.8°C, and the least was 20.7°C. The pH of the water samples ranged from 6.48-8.15. The turbidity values of the well water samples ranged from 0-4 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). From the results obtained, most of the water samples analyzed met World Health Organization standard of 0 MPN index/100ml. However, the few samples observed to harbour contaminations calls for treatment before consumption.

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Contaminated surface waters have been implicated in outbreaks of enteric viral infections. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the common cause of infectious hepatitis, and hepatitis A outbreaks associated with contaminated water supply have been reported in various countries. The aim of this study was to assess the virological quality of water samples from Buffalo River, a major resource located in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Using standard methods, A total of 18 water samples were collected monthly, for a period of three months (August-October 2010), from a total of six sites on Buffalo River and its dams, including Maden, Rooikrantz and Bridle Drift dams) and examined for the occurrence HAV. The virus was concentrated by the adsorption-elution method using an electronegative filter and amplified via semi-nested reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). HAV was detected in 7 (38.9%) of the total of 18 water samples collected. While the virus was never detected at Maden dam and Eluxolzweni, it was detected at the other four sampling sites at varying degrees throughout the study period. The detection rate for HAV was 100% at the King William's Town sampling site and 66.7% at the estuary (Parkside, East London). The virus was detected only once at Rooikrantz dam (in September) and at Bridle Drift dam, Mdanlsane (in October). The presence of HAV in water samples constitutes public health risks. The consistent occurrence of the virus in Buffalo River suggests the need for assessing viral contamination of other water sources.

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Food is an important basic necessity but its procurement, preparation and consumption are vital for the sustenance of life. Unfortunately it is also a vehicle of disease spread. The aim of this research is to determine the microbial quality of ready- to- eat grasshoppers being sold within Jos and its environs. Two hundred (200) samples were purchased from 10 different locations within Jos and its environs in sterile polythene bags and taken to Microbiology Laboratory of Plateau State Polytechnic, Barkin Ladi for analysis. These samples were ground separately and lg of each of them was homogenized in 100ml of sterile distilled water. One milliliter from homogenate was introduced into 9ml of sterile distilled water and serially diluted into 9 other test tubes. One milliliter from each of the last test tubes from the ten samples was inoculated into 20ml of nutrient agar and incubated at 37°c for 24hrs.The colonies were characterized using standard microbiological and biochemical methods, lg of each of the samples was inoculated on Sabouraud dextrose and incubated for 18- 72hrs (fungal isolation).The fungal isolates were then characterized based on microscopic appearance. Total of 6 genera of bacteria were isolated such as Bacillus species, Lactobacillus species, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus species, Salmonella species and Esherichia coli. Also, 7 species of fungi were isolated namely, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigates, Trichophyton mentagrophyte, Trichophyton rubrum and Yeast. Both bacteria and fungi isolated are pathogenic and harmful to man because they produce micro toxins. It was concluded that, ready-to-eat grasshopper sold in this study area are unacceptable and unsafe for human consumption.

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The antifungal and antibacterial activities of extracts Chlorella vulgaris was studied by using methanol, ethanol, chloroform, acetone, hot aqueous and cold aqueous extracts on; Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida sp. and Penicillium sp. The well in-agar and disc diffusion techniques adopted showed inhibitory effect with varying degree of susceptibility except cold aqueous extract which had no activity on any of the isolates used in the study. The highest zone of inhibition for bacterial isolates was observed in ethanol extract (6mm) for Klebsiella sp., while the highest zone of inhibition for fungal isolates was seen in methanol extract (4.5mm) for Candida sp. Hot aqueous extract showed the least zone of inhibition (0.5mm). The algal extract showed more activity on the bacterial isolates than commercial antibiotics used, while the antifungal drugs are more active on the fungal isolates than the extract. The natural derivatives from this algal species may be useful in treating certain specific infections and diseases as well as limit the proliferation of some clinical strains with little or no side effect

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Sixty (60) children with secretory otitis media and 60 age and sex matched controls were recruited for the study. Ear-discharge swabs were taken from children with secretory otitis media and cultured for microbial isolation and identification. Un-paired student t-test was used to compare the difference between the children with secretory otitis media and the control group, while Chi-squared test was used to determine association between the variables. Different microbial pathogens were isolated from the ears of those with otitis media in Zaria including Staphylococcus aureus (32.7%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20.0%), Escherichia coli (9.1%), Proteus spp. (9.1%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (7.3%), Candida albicans (5.5%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (5.5%), Streptococcus pyogenes (5.5%), Corynbacterium diptheriae (3.6%) and Citrobacter fruindii (1.8%).There is a paradigm shift in the aetiology of otitis media from the 3 most common organisms of otitis media to other microbial agents in this part of the world. Therefore, microbial identification should inform the choice of antibiotics before administration.

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Phenol tolerant bacteria were isolated from sewage treatment site. Sixteen bacterial colonies were isolated and tested in 100-500 mg/L of 2,4-Dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP). After screening, two isolates which showed high phenol resistances were selected. Both isolates, XC, and N3 were able to tolerate 200 mg/L of 2,4-DCP but isolate N3 tolerated 400 mg/L of 2,4-DCP. Isolate N3 was identified as Bacillus pasteurii while isolate XC was identified as Aeromonas hyrophila. Bacillus pasteurii was selected for further studies and was subjected to plasmid curing experiment which confirmed that 2,4-DCP resistant trait was mediated by a single plasmid of approximately 22kb. Amendment with organic nitrogen sources, to enhance the tolerance of 2,4-DCP by Bacillus pasteurii showed that the maximum 2,4-DCP tolerance level of 300mg/L at an optical density(OD) of 0.35 which was 133% higher than that obtained for control was achieved at 0.5mg/L of peptone. Similarly, a maximum 2.4-DCP tolerance level of 300mg/L at an GD of 0.24 which was 60% higher than that obtained for control was achieved at 0.5 mg/L of yeast extract. A maximum 2,4-DCP tolerance level of 300mg/L at an optical density of 0.19 which was 26% higher than that obtained for control was achieved at 0.5mg/L of tryptone. In all experiments, it was observed that the decrease in inhibition capability of 2,4-DCP and the increase in the tolerance capacity of the strains are synonymous. Among the nitrogen sources tested, peptone showed a significantly (P < 0.05, Student's t-Test) higher level of enhancement of 2,4-DCP tolerance by Bacillus pasteurii.

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Food is what contains the nutrients which are essential for body nourishment. The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as 'when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. The hotel is one place where people are served food at a cost. This implies that the hotel has a stake in ensuring food security for all people. Hotels world over are guided by Regulations and Codes of Ethics in their operations. One of such regulations is the Food Safety Act ( FSA) of 1996 which spells out what hotels must do to ensure that foods sold to the public are safe in addition to being nutritious. Recurring reports of hotels food safety infractions spurred the need to carry out this investigation in order to determine their level of compliance to hygiene regulations in Bauchi metropolis. The study was limited to the Urban and Sub-Urban classified hotels. The diagnostic survey design was adopted and a census population was used for a reliable result. Structured questionnaires were used to elicit information from three respondents drawn from the regulatory agencies responsible for the enforcement of relevant laws on hotels. Observation checklist was also used to assess the sanitary conditions of hotels premises. The one-way ANOVA was used to test for differences among the means and to analyze the total compliance scores of the eight hotels used for the study as regards all the 24 conditions of hygiene and sanitation outlined in the FSA that the regulatory agencies had scored them. This was based on a Likert scale with 5 points (5-Very Good, 4-Good, 3-Average, 2-Poor, and 1-Very Poor). A score between 24 and 56 implied Low Compliance, a score between 57 and 89 implied average compliance while a score between 90 and 120 implied high compliance. The significant test for the hypothesis was at 95% confidence level (p< 0.05). The study finding was that the level of compliance with hygiene and sanitation regulations was below the average scores of between 57 and 89. The study recommended among others, a mandatory course on food hygiene and sanitation for prospective hotel entrepreneurs as a prerequisite for obtaining license for all food businesses in Bauchi.

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ntestinal parasitic diseases are still a public health problem in the developing countries, probably due to poor sanitation and inadequate personal hygiene. Sixty (60) fresh vegetables comprising of 30 carrot (Daurus carota) and 30 garden egg (Solamun aethiopicum)were collected from farmers within Kaduna metropolis and examined using simple ordinary sedimentation concentration method for the presence of helminthes ova.Out of the 60 samples examined, 13(21%) samples were positive for-helminthes contamination. Four helminthes eggs were detected, which include Ascaris lumbricoides, Hookworm, Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola species, with percentage occurrence of 3(5%), 5(8.3%), 4(6.7%) and 1(1.7%) respectively. Higher prevalence was recorded in carrot 9(30%) compared to 4(13.3%) recorded in garden egg. The study has revealed the potential risk of contracting intestinal infections through ingestion of locally grown, unwashed vegetables even though the p-value was 0.208 which is greater than 0.05, hence there was no statistical significant difference.

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In the last few decades, the levels of antibiotic resistant infections in the developing countries have increased steadily. This was as a result of combination of microbial characteristics and the selective pressure of antimicrobial use. In this study, 100 clinical samples were screened for bacterial genera. The identified organisms were tested for antibiotic resistant pattern, beta-lactamase production hemolytic activity and multiple antibiotic resistance index. Correlation of antibiotic resistance with tested virulent factors was determined by statistical means. Ninety two (92) bacterial isolates belonging to 9 genera were isolated from the 100 clinical samples. Of these isolates, 62(67%) were Gram negative while 30 (33%) were Gram positive. E. coli (25%) was the most isolated organism while the least were K. pneumoniae and Shigella spp with 2% each. All the organisms were mostly isolated from urine with the exception of Salmonella spp which occurred mostly in stool samples. Beta-lactamase was produced by 59(64%) of the isolated organisms, out of which 43(69.4%) and 16(53.3%) were Gram negative and Gram positive organisms respectively. None of the organisms was a-hemolytic, 64(69.6%) were y-hemolytic (non-hemolytic), while 28(30.4%) were P-hemolytic. The resistant pattern of all the isolates showed a multidrug resistant (MDR) phenotype especially among members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. On Gram negative organisms, the result showed significant correlation in antibiotic resistance between P-lac+ and P-lac- organisms (P=0.010) and between P-hemolytic and y-hemolytic organisms (P=0.001). On Staphylococcus spp, there was no significant correlation in antibiotic resistance between P-lac+ and P-lac- (P=0.401) and between P-hemolytic and y hemolytic Staphylococcus spp (P=0.590).The high rate of antimicrobial resistance among bacterial isolates from common clinical specimens obtained from patients attending Mubi General Hospital, Adamawa State was rather alarming and required urgent attention.

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Wound healing is a complex and dynamic process with the wound environment changing with the changing health status of the individual. This is a resultant effect of antibiotic resistance which the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared as pandemic since 2012. To consolidate this fact, forty-one (41) open wound swab samples were collected from Lagos State University Teaching Hospital (LASUTH)and analyzed microbiologically to identify to species level. The use of the microbact 12a/12b and 24 eidentification kits was employed. Fifty-four (54) bacterial isolates were isolated comprising of ten different bacteria organisms with their percentage prevalence, videlicet; Staphylococcus aureus (33.33%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20.37%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (14.81%), Escherichia coli(9.25%), Acinetobacta iwojfi (7.41%), Klebsiella oxytoca (5.56%), Proteus mirabilis(3.10%), Proteus vulgaris (1.85%), Acinetobacta baumani (1.85%) and Escherichia coli-inactive (1.85%). The isolates were cultured on MacConkey, mannitol salt, Eosin methylene blue and nutrient agar. Gram staining technique was used to determine the Gram- positive and Gram- negative bacteria, after culturing, sensitivity test was done on all the isolated bacteria with Mueller-Hilton agar using Kirby-bauer technique, and the following antibiotics ceftazidime (CAZ) 30ug, cefuroxime (CRX) 30ug, gentamicin (GEN) lOug, cefriaxone (CTR) 30ug, erytheomycin (ERY) 5ug, cloxacilin (CXC) 5ug, ofloxacin (OFL) 5ug, augmentin (AUG) 30u.g. Only ofloxaxin was found to be very effective followed by gentamicin, the rest of the antibiotics were ineffective against the microorganisms as they were multiple drug resistant

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Ogi, a common fermented food from maize is usually low in protein mostly when produced from maize alone. This research was carried out to determine the possibility of improving the nutritional value mostly protein, carbohydrate and ash content of pap using soybeans. The maize was steeped together with different percentages of parboiled soy bean (5-50%), and allowed to ferment for 0-72 hours. 0.1 ml of the fermentation water was aseptically inoculated unto appropriate media for isolation of fermenting microorganisms. The isolates include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp, Lactobacillus spp, Bacillus spp, Corynebacterium spp, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus spp, Mucor spp, Penicillium spp, Rhizopus spp and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Lactobacillus spp, Bacillus spp and Saccharomyces cerevisiae persisted throughout the fermentation time. Ogi sample from white maize without soybean (Control) has the lowest protein content (14.65±0.1%) while ogi from yellow maize with 50% boiled soybean has the highest protein content (53.31 ±0.1%). Processing maize with up to 50% soybean will tremendously improve nutritional value of pap consumed by infants and adults.

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Daddawa also known as iru, among the Yorubas in South-west Nigeria, is a popular condiment used as taste and flavour enhancer in soup and dishes in Africa. Daddawa is traditionally produced from locust beans (Parkia biglobosa) seeds. This work was carried out on the preservation of fermented Parkia biglabosa seeds sourced from local producers and laboratory produced. The fermented laboratory control and local samples were treated with 1% salt w/w. A control experiment was left untreated. The samples were stored at ambient temperature (34°C and 30°C) for 30 and 120 days. The analysis consisted of aerobic and anaerobic mesophilic count, Staphylococcus count and Fungal count, detection of Escherichia coli, S.aureus, Salmonella sp, Mucor sp and Rhizopus sp. Contaminant isolates were identified from laboratory treated, untreated (Control) and locally produced, using standard procedure. The proximate analysis and organoleptic assessment of the laboratory treated, untreated (control) and purchased locust bean cake were carried out using standard procedure. The treated locust bean cake indicated microbial log reduction atl20 days due to the effects of the preservatives; the Control shows microbial Log increase in the untreated locust bean cake. Isolated and characterized bacterial isolates at 30 and 120 days in the treated and untreated locust bean cake was E.coli only isolated in Kwanaryan daddawa, Staphylococcus aureus were isolated in all the purchased Locust bean cake. Salmonella sp was not detected and a predominant fungal genera were Mucor sp and Rhizopus sp. The result indicated 40% elimination of contaminants at Gude, Jogana and Kwanaryan daddawa. The mean proximate composition at 30 and 120 days shows nutritional quality of treated locust bean cake. The Organoleptic assessment indicated that the judges rejected control daddawa due to off flavor.

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Hookworm is now known as the most damage and insidious character infection among parasitic infections and ye. the most neglected by the global medical community. This however, is constituting great threat to public health sector most especially in the tropical countries. This study was aimed at determining the prevalence of Hookworm infection among peasant farmers in six villages of Ghakyob District of Kaninkon Chiefdom Jema'a Local Government Area of Kaduna State Viz; Buduku, Sabon Gari, Ungwan Baki, Nko, Ungwan Ture and Ungwan VIO. A total of four hundred and twenty (420) stool samples were collected and examined using wet preparation and formol-ether concentration techniques. The overall prevalence was found to be 27.9%, and a statistical significant relationship was established between village of the peasant farmer and hookworm infection with p-value, P = 0.000 < 0.05.Sabongari was found to have the highest prevalence of 42.8%followed by Buduku 37.1%, Nko 35.7%, Ungwan Baki 27.1%, Ungwan Ture 15.7% and the least Ungwan VIO 8.6%. Relationship between hookworm infection and sex revealed that the females had higher rate of infection 66(31.4%) compared to male51 (24.3%).In relation to toilet facilities, Sabongari with 22 toilets had a Prevalence of (42.8%), Buduku with 28 toilets had a prevalence of (37.1%), Nko with 20 toilets (35.7%), U/Baki with 31 toilets (27.1%), U/Ture with 15 toilets (15.7%) and U/VIO with 50 toilets had (8.6%) hookworm infection. Other parasites seen apart from Hookworm infection was 17.9%, In conclusion, this study revealed the transmission of human hookworm among peasant farmers in this community to be at alarming rate. Thus, major prevention and control measures should be adopted to avoid further spread of the infection; and more so, there is a need for prompt treatment of the infected persons as well as creating a law that will prohibit indiscriminate defeacation on farm lands

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More than 370 million individuals worldwide are Hepatitis B virus (HB V) carriers and about 5% of these individuals are co-infected with Hepatitis D virus (HDV). Hepatitis D virus is a defective virus that requires the obligatory help of Hepatitis B virus for its replication and expression. Hepatitis D virus is known to induce acute or chronic liver diseases. Individuals having HBV-HDV co-infection are prone to present with more severe acute disease and higher risk of fulminant hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) than those having Hepatitis B virus infection alone. Based on phylogenetic analysis, Hepatitis D virus is classified into 8 genotypes. Except genotype 1 which is found worldwide, genotypes 2-8 have specific geographical distribution. The transmission of Hepatitis D virus is similar to that of Hepatitis B virus (i.e. by blood and blood products, perinatal and also sexual intercourse). Hepatitis D virus can be diagnosed by serological analysis, molecular techniques and histo-immunochemistry. Several antiviral agents are under trial with varying degrees of efficacy. However, vaccination against Hepatitis B virus has helped in the control of Hepatitis D virus.

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The importance of routine assessment of water quality available for consumption, domestic and industrial uses cannot be overemphasized. Hence, studies on microbiological and physico-chemical characteristics of Nduetong Oku streams (Idim Afia and Idim Etuk) were carried out to assess their pollution status. Microbiological analysis showed mean bacterial count of 8.05x105 CFU/mL for Idem Afia and 7.86x 105 CFU/mL for Idem Etuk; the mean coliform count for two streams were 3.57x105CFU/mL and 3.4xl05 CFU/mL , while the mean fungal counts was 5.43xl04 CFU/mL and 4.52xl04 CFU/mL for Idem Afia and Idem Etuk, respectively. Isolates identified included Staphylococcus sp., Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Klebsiella sp., and Vibro sp. which are considered pathogenic, other were Enterococcus faecalis and Escherischia coli, notable pollution indicators and pathogens. Fungi isolates obtained were Aspergillus candidus, Absidia sp, Chaetomium sp, Candida Iropicalis, Candida pseudotropicalis, Penicillium frequentans, Eurotium herbariorum. All the fungal isolates and Escherichia sp:, Bacillus sp., and Pseudomonas sp. exhibited hydrocarbon degradation capability. The physico-chemical analysis of the water sources showed that some parameters were higher, some below and others within the specified range of WHO (World Health Organization) standard. From these baseline studies conducted in Nduetong-Oku streams, it has been noted that the streams contain a number of tested parameters that do not conform to the WHO standard for potable water.

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This study investigated the vulnerability of six groundwater sources to contamination by Escherichia coli using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and standard Microbiological procedures. Hospital wastewater and groundwater samples were collected from five hospitals. VES was accomplished using Schlumberger electrode configuration. All and four of the wastewater and groundwater sources sampled were contaminated with E. coli. Bacterial isolates (n=118). Areas of lowest vulnerability to infiltration had clay overburden reflected by resistivity value of <100flm and 0% E. coli isolation, while highly vulnerable areas were underlain by sand or clayey sand. Results showed that groundwater sites underlain by coarse grained permeable soil strata were negatively impacted by unhygienically disposed hospital wastewater.

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Plasmid is known to play a very vital role in the emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria in veterinary and human health. A total of 90 isolates of Escherichia coli out of 100 swab samples were recovered from cloacal swabs of swine (neonate, piglet and adults). All the isolates were morphologically and biochemically identified, while 20 of the representative isolates were confirmed using molecular-studies, and used for plasmid profile analysis. Twelve antibiotics were used for the study. All the isolates were resistant to amoxicillin (100%). Resistance to other antibiotics were as follows; Oxacillin (96%), Erythromycine (76%) and Streptomycin (68%). The demonstration of multi-drug phenotype cuts across the various age range of the swine. The bacteria isolates were sensitive to Gentamycin (100%), Ciprofloxamine (92%), Ceftazidine (92%) and Oxfloxacin (88%). There was multidrug resistance of E. coli (22.4%) with the predominant resistance patterns being CIP-OXF-CET-CEZ-GEN CXM. There was Plasmid cure of all the bacteria isolates, an indication that resistance was chromosomally mediated. The study revealed that there were multi-drug resistant strains of E. coli in the studied Swine. Molecular detection of E. coli showed bands with amplicon size of 160 bp. The absence of visible bands for the plasmids despite the fact that the isolates were resistance to antibiotics, implies that chromosomal genes may be responsible for conferring resistance to antibiotics. From the study, swine may serve as a reservoir for E. coli strains carrying antimicrobial resistant genes.

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Opportunistic infections due to endogenous microorganisms have been a global problem in immune compromised Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) positive patients. Staphylococcus aureus is a significant opportunistic pathogen among HIV patients in both nosocomial and community settings. There is scarce information on the relatedness of S. aureus strains isolated from HIV patients in Nigeria. The goal of the present study was to determine the genetic relatedness of S. aureus isolated from HIV-positive patients from three different hospitals in Imo State, Nigeria. Fifty nine S.. aureus strains obtained from HIV.positive patients attending Heajt to Heart centres at Owerri General Hospital, Okigwe General Hospital and Awo-Omama General Hospital all in Imo State, Nigeria, and presenting symptoms of pneumonia, oral thrush, skin and urinary tract infections, were subjected to enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR analysis and protein profiling to assess their genetic variability. Distinct 12 clusters with a clone circulating in two different hospitals were obtained. The strains in few clusters represent a clone because they are 100% related and therefore could be said to be of the same origin The protein profile showed different band sizes ranging from 26.5 to 300 kDa of which few strains from the three different hospitals were related. Inherent variations among S. aureus were observed and it could be due to the selective pressure produced by antibiotics used as part the treatment regime for these patients. The methods used afforded a valuable contribution in defining inherent variations among strains which would be useful in understanding the epidemiology and in designing prevention and control measures against the infections caused by this pathogen in HIV patients.

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The phytochemical and antimicrobial effect of cornstarch extracts was investigated. Corn starch of yellow and white corn variety were extracted successively with ethanol, methanol and distilled water. These crude extracts were assessed for antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi. Escherichia coli were sensitive to the methanolic and ethanolic extracts of white corn starch with zones of inhibition of 22mm and 20mm respectively. Escherichia coli was also sensitive to ethanolic extract of yellow corn starch with a zone of inhibition of 22mm. Salmonella typhi was also sensitive to ethanolic and methanolic extracts of white maize starch with zones of inhibition of 20mm and 21mm respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration of extracts of various corn varieties on E. coli and Salmonella typhi were investigated. The minimum inhibitory concentration of ethanolic (1.56mg/ml) and methanolic extract (0.78mg/ml) of white maize starch had zones of 17mm and 19mm on Escherichia coli respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration of ethanol and methanol extract of white corn starch on Salmonella typhi where found to possess zones of inhibition 17mm and 18mm respectively, while the minimum inhibitory concentration of ethanolic extract (0.78mg/ml) of yellow corn starch on Escherichia coli had zones of inhibition of 18mm. Phytochemical screening of both varieties of cornstarch revealed the presence of alkaloid, tannin, saponins and terpenoids. Sensitivity testing of the phytochemicals present revealed that tannins had zone of inhibition on the test organisms (Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli (23.20mm and 25mm) respectively, while the other phytochemicals had no zones of inhibition.

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Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a gram-positive bacterium found in clinical and community settings across the world. It is a major cause of both nosocomial and community-acquired staphylococcal infections. Nasal carriage rates of S. aureus and Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among hospital and non hospital centres have been reported in several Nigerian studies. Nevertheless, most of these studies presented local data, and no systematic study has been performed. Only 41 studies were included in this meta-analysis out of which only 24 studies reported MRSA colonization rates. The Meta-analysis of included studies reveals the pooled random effects estimate of nasal carriage of S. aureus and MRSA in Nigeria to be 41.5% (95% CI: 36.3-46.9) and 36.4% (95% CI: 27.7- 46.1), respectively. The high level of heterogeneity (S. aureus, 94% and MRSA, 92%) found in this study cannot be explained by chance, but by differences in study populations, methodology and geographical regions. Although not all infections* are causally related to persistent S. aureus and MRSA carriages, there is sufficient data to show that colonization by MRSA may act as a reservoir that can subsequently develop into an infection, once immunity wanes or immune defenses are breached. Therefore, proper screening and decolonization strategies should be nationally employed.

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Itaconic acid was produced by Aspergillus terreus under solid-state fermentation using the pod of Moringa oleifera as substrate. Grinded Moringa pod was weighed into separate shake flasks containing salts and Aspergillus terreus (3.2x 104spores/ml) was added. The substrate was left to ferment for 5 days. Carboxylmethylcellulose (CMC) was used as a control substrate. Itaconic acid was assayed using standard procedures. Different fermentation parameters such as substrate concentration, inoculum size and incubation period were varied to determine the maximum production of Itaconic acid. Light spectrophotometer was used to measure the absorbance of the Itaconic acid concentration produced after each day of fermentation at 385nm. The maximum yield of Itaconic acid of 18.39 mg/ml was obtained with a substrate concentration of lOg, while 17.2mg/ml was produced with an inoculum size of 6ml (3.2x I04cfu/ml ) and 13.91 mg/ml on day 5. It is concluded that the pod of • Moringa oleifera can be used as a substrate for Itaconic acid production using A. terreus in solid state fermentation

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Bacterial isolates from wastewater and sediments of the Ntanwogba open drainage system in Port Harcourt city was tested for their susceptibility to antibiotics. Wastewater samples were collected twice a week for a period of six months from February through July using standard analytical methods. Results obtained showed that the sediment samples had Escherichia coli with the highest percentage of occurrence of 23.8%, followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis M18 with 19% each, while Burkholderia multivorans and Pseudomonas fluoresceins had the least occurrence of 4.8% each. Wastewater samples showed that Escherichia coli also had the highest percentage occurrence of 21.2%, followed by Enterobacter asburiae and Plesiomonas shigelloides with 15.2% each, while Pseudomonas fluoresceins had the least occurrence of 6.1%. Antibiotic sensitivity of strains was conducted using the disc diffusion method. The antibiotic sensitivity test carried out on the bacterial isolates showed 100% resistance to Augmentin, Ceftazidime, Cefuroxime, Ceftriaxone, Cloxacillin and Cefi.xime. However, 2.08% were susceptible to Ciprofloxacin, 33.3% to Erythromycin, 77.8% to Gentamicin, 87.5% to Nitrofurantoin and 96.3% to Ofloxacin. Bacillus ginsengisoli was the most resistant, but sensitive to only Ofloxacin, Burkholderia multivorans was the most susceptible bacterial isolate and was susceptible to Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin, Nitrofurantoin, Ofloxacin. This was followed by Enterobacter asburiae that was sensitive to Gentamicin, Nitrofurantoin, Ofloxacin. While Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Plesiomonas shigelloides, Proteus mirabilis Ml 8, Proteus mirabilis Ml 9, Pseudomonas fluoresceins and Pseudomonas nitroreducens were all sensitive to Nitrofurantoin and Ofloxacin. The high level of resistance to antimicrobial agents recorded in this study shows that the wastewater effluents and the receiving water bodies could pose a potential health risk to the surrounding communities who depend on these water sources for various domestic activities. Therefore, proper waste water management is fundamental for maintaining public health and protecting the quality of the environment

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Pleurotus pulmonarius is an edible macrofungus that is produced commercially. Cultural studies to determine the most suitable culture media for the vegetative growth was carried out. The effect of environmental and nutritional factors was also investigated. Temperature ranging between 10-25°C and pH values (4.0-8.0) influences was determined on different chemically defined medium (potato dextrose agar, malt extract agar and yeast extract agar). Basal medium was prepared for the nutritional sources (carbon, nitrogen, minerals and vitamins) and all were incubated at 30 ± 2°C for 7days. The mycelia were recovered by sterile filtering and drying. The highest mycelia growth rate was obtained between pH 6.0-8.0 and at 25°C. Fructose was the most utilized carbon source, L-leucine the most utilized nitrogen source and Vitamin C most utilized vitamin source. The most utilized macroelements was the combination of magnessium and calcium while for the microelements the best combination was zinc and copper. These requirements are suitable for the optimal production of active mycelium of Pleurotus pulmonarius

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Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral disease of domestic poultry, caged, aviary and wild birds caused by the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Sero prevalence of Newcastle disease virus was determined with 250 sera samples collected from unvaccinated local chickens marketed and slaughtered in Kaduna South Local Government Area, Kaduna State. Northern Nigeria using the Haemagglutination inhibition (HI) method. Of the 250 sera examined, 138 (55.5%) tested positive for NDV antibodies, with 112 negative. The result highlights the epizootic nature of the disease among local chickens in the area and concludes that the data is of economic importance since poultry local chickens are known to spread NDV to other avian species. Vaccination of local chicken is recommended when practicable

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the biovars of Salmonella that are found in poultry farms in Abia and Imo States, Southeastern Nigeria. Forty Salmonella isolates obtained from previous studies were subjected to molecular identification using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with Salmonella universal and species specific primers. Six different Salmonella serotypes were screened to determine the biovars that was present in the study. The serotypes was Salmonella infantis, Salmonella typhimurum. Salmonella weltervreden. Salmonella enteritidis. Salmonella pullorum and Salmonella gallinerum. The PCR products of the genomic DNA extracted from the 40 Salmonella isolates produced bands at 250bp following agarose gel electrophoresis. Amplification of the species specific primers were evidenced with detection of bands. Two Salmonella biovars were detected out of the 6 Salmonella serotypes used for the study, namely, Salmonella pullorum and Salmonella gallinerum. Sixteen Salmonella gallinerum were isolated from Imo State while 24 Salmonella pullorum were isolated from Abia State with bands ranging from lOObp to 250bp. The study shows that the predominant biovars present in the study area were two and this could have remarkable epidemiological implications in the control of the disease. There is need to monitor the movement of day old chicks for pathogenic Salmonella species to facilitate the control of these economically important zoonotic salmonella disease.

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Background/Aim: The lack of effective therapies and/or vaccines for several viral infections, and the rapid emergence of new drug-resistant viruses have necessitated the need for developing new and effective antiviral agents. In this study we evaluate the antiviral potentials of three plants indigenous to Nigeria on vaccine strains of Yellow fever virus (YFV) and Polio virus (PV) in order to inform their usefulness in antiviral drug design. Fresh leaves of Bambusa vulgaris Schrad., Moringa oleifera (L), and seed of Citrus paridisi Macfad were collected from Lagos State, South Western Nigeria. Extraction of the plant materials was done with analar grade methanol using the Soxhlet extractor and concentrated using the rotary evaporator. Results showed that the crude extracts of the three plants inhibited YFV in vitro, with the virus being more susceptible to C. paridisi Macfad at all the concentrations tested. B. vulgaris Schrad., and M. oleifera (L) inhibited the virus at two concentrations of 0.031 and 0.016 ug \xh'\ andO.063 and 0.031 ug uL~',respectively. PV was resistant to all the extracts at all the concentrations. Results of pre and post- infection antiviral activities of the extracts on the replicative cycle of the viruses showed both adsorption/entry, and post infection inhibitors. Phytochemical screening of the extracts showed the presence of terpenes, alkaloids, flavonoid, tannins, combined and free anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, and saponins. This study revealed that some Nigerian medicinal plants could serve as alternative agents for treating and/or preventing infections caused by RNA viruses.

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A study was conducted to assess the microbiological quality of "Tsire" sold at Karshen Waya within a period of two months (January to February 2017). 10 samples of "Tsire" were analyzed microbiologically for determination of aerobic mesophilic count, staphylococcal count and total coliform count using pour plate technique. Detection of Staphylococcus aureus was also carried out. Results of the microbial analysis showed that aerobic mesophilic bacterial count is within the range of 1.80xl08 to 1.54xl09; for fungal count, 1.30xl06 to 7.6xl07 staphylococcal count 9.2E6 to 9.9xl09. Total coliform count 150 - < 2400 and 30% of the samples indicate the presence of pathogenic strains of S. aureus. The counts were found to be higher according to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. It is therefore, recommended that hygienic practices should be used by the meat processors in all their operations.

Abstract

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The extracts of Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Capsicum annum and Zingiber officinale were analysed for their antimicrobial properties. The presence of some phytochemical components (Flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, glycosides, tannins, saponins and amino acids) were confirmed. The antimicrobial activities of the extracts were evaluated against four bacterial isolates; Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus mirabilis and Enterobacter aerogenes. Growth inhibition was evaluated by agar well diffusion and tube dilution methods. All the extracts possessed antimicrobial properties in varying degrees. The zones of inhibition were in the range; Allium cepa 9-12 mm, Allium sativumA - 11mm, Capiscum Minum 9 mm and Zingiber officinaleW - 22mm. Ethanolic extracts were more active owing to the inherent solubility of the phytochemical compounds in the solvent. The highest antibacterial activity was exhibited by the ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale against Enterobacter aerogenes producing mean zone of inhibition of 15mm while ciprofloxacingave28 mm against Proteus mirabilis. The plant extracts showed promising applications in the control of some bacterial agents.

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This is a cross-sectional laboratory based study in which two hundred blood samples were aseptically and randomly collected from apparently healthy students of Federal Polytechnic Mubi. Participants were screened for Hepatitis B surface antigen and anti HCV antibody using standard procedures. Ethical clearance and participant's informed consent were sought and obtained from appropriate authorities and concerned participants respectively. All data generated from this study were analysed for statistical relevance using Mann-Whitney and Duncan Chi square test. Of the 200 samples screened, 20% were seropositive for HBsAg while 11.5% were seropositive for anti-HCV antibody. The sex related prevalence of 22.1% formales and 15.9% forfemales were obtained for HBV, while 13.7% for males and 7.2% for females were obtained for HCV. There was no significant association between gender and HBsAg (P=0.281) and HCV (P=0.196) infections. All the age brackets showed no HBsAg/HCV co-infection. While HBsAg was found to be more prevalent among age group 25-29yrs (32.8%), HCV was found to be more prevalent among the age group 30-34yrs (20.6%) but with no statistical difference for both HBsAg (P=0.135) and HCV (P=0.199).

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The effect of glyphosate on bacteria and filamentous fungi isolated from Yeghe River sediment in Bori LGA, Rivers state, Nigeria was investigated. The isolates were phenotypically identified using standard methods and assayed to determine the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the glyphosate. The dehydrogenase activity (DHA) of the most sensitive isolates were determined using 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) as the artificial electron acceptor. The triphenylformazan (TPF) produced was extracted in 4 ml of amyl alcohol and determined spectrophotometrically at 500 nm. The DHA was expressed as the mg of TPF formed per dry weight of cell biomass per hour and was plotted against the glyphosate concentration. A total of thirteen (13) bacteria of the generaAmphibacillus, Brochothrix, Aeromicrobium, Staphylococcus, Sporosarcina, Kurthia, Enterococcus, Acinetobacter, Erysipelothrix, Vagococcus, Alcaligenes, Caryophanon and Escherichia, and nine (9) moulds of the genera Microsporum, Acrophialophora, Colletotrichum, Histoplasma, Trichophyton, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Scedosporium and Chrysosporium were isolated. The result of MIC assay showed that 50% of the bacteria and 0% of the mould isolates were susceptible to concentrations of the glyphosate between 0.075 and 5.0 mg/ml while all isolates were susceptible-to concentration of 9.0 mg/ml glyphosate. However, all the microbial isolates used for DHA were found to be sensitive to concentration of 0.075 mg/ml glyphosate, showing that DHA is more sensitive than the MIC assay in toxicity testing. The results have also shown that low concentrations of glyphosate, usually associated with run-off and spray drifts, are sufficient to reduce the dehydrogenase activity of microorganisms and have the capacity to debilitate freshwater systems.

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This study investigated the incidence of multiple antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria isolated from drinking water sources in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Fifty samples of drinking water from wells, boreholes, streams, sachet and bottled water were randomly collected from Ado-Ekiti metropolis, Nigeria for microbiological analyses. Isolation, identification, antibiotic sensitivity testing of Gram-negative bacteria were carried out using standard methods. The mean total viable and coliform counts of water samples were considerably high. A total of eighty-two (82) Gram-negative bacteria comprising Klebsiella spp, Pseuddmonas spp, Proteus spp, Shigella Spp, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp, Alcaligens spp and Citobacter spp were isolated. The percentage resistance of the isolates to the antibiotics ranged from 0.6%, in ofloxacin and gentamicin, to 31.5%, in amoxicillin with multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) to 3 to 6 classes of antibiotics. Fifteen MAR Gram-negative bacteria examined for the presence of plasmid revealed that all except Klebsiella sp, haboured a conjugative plasmid of >lKb. The investigation on the incidence of water-borne diseases in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria revealed that 26.2% respondents claimed to have experienced water-borne diseases in the last three years which is statistically significant (p-value = 0.00). Therefore, adequate drinking water sanitation and disinfection program must be put in place to ensure safety against water borne antibiotic-resistant pathogens in Ekiti state and by extension Nigeria.

Abstract

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Citrullusl anatus (Watermelon) and Psidium guajava (Guava) are tropical fruits with short shelf-lives because of the temperature and relative humidity conditions in tropical countries like Nigeria. Production of wine from these fruits could help to reduce the extent of post-harvest loss and increase the variety of wines. Juice from the fruits was extracted and after treatment were mixed using the following ratio WMJ:GJ, 100:0, 0:100, 50:50, 40:60, 30:70, 20:80 and 10:90; to be labelled A, B, C, D, E, F and G respectively. Wine A and B served as control. Fermentation was done for 7 days with daily analyses of microbiological and physico-chemical parameters. Results revealed yeast and mould counts ranging from 236 x 105to 290 x 105cfu/ml, while there was no viable plate count and coliform growth in the final products. These results fall well below acceptable limits in the formulated wine which is safe for human consumption. During fermentation, consistent increases in titratable acidity and alcoholic content were observed while there were gradual decreases in pH, reducing sugars and specific gravity. Vitamins A and C contents as well as the alcoholic content of the final wines were moderate. The pH values of all the wines were acidic and ranged from 4.05 ± 0.14 to 4.72 ± 0.10. Acidity was within the acceptable limit. Quality assessments reflected that wine product coded 'C' was of higher quality and could be stored at 28 ± 2°C for a minimum period of six months without marked changes in quality.

Abstract

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This study was performed to assess the toxicity of two different domestic detergents at varying concentrations on the Aspergillus sp. subjected to different exposure times. The toxicological assessment was performed using the Aspergillus species isolated from fresh (Asarama stream, Asarama town, Andoni L.G.A) and brackish (Eagle island River, Port Harcourt) aquatic ecosystems both in Rivers state. The set-ups containing the test microorganism had the following concentrations of domestic detergents (Mymy and Zip): 6.25%, 12.5%, 25%, 50% and 75% and were exposed for 0, 4, 8, 12 and 24hrsrespectively.With the use of differential/selective media, the organism was isolated and further characterized by cell colonial and morphological identification. The median lethal concentration (Lc50) was employed to compute the toxicities of the two domestic detergents on the test organism. The result obtained showed that the Aspergillus sp. demonstrated great sensitivity to the toxicity elicited by the domestic detergents. The sensitivity of the Aspergillus sp. to the toxicity of the different toxicants, Mymy and Zip detergents from the two different water samples decreased in the following order (noting the lower the lethal concentration (Lc50), the more toxic the toxicant): Zip detergent in freshwater (37.26 mg/I) >Mymy detergent in brackish water (41.71 mg/1) > Zip detergent in brackish water (42.63 mg/1) >Mymy detergent in fresh water (47.82 mg/1). The Zip detergent showed more toxicity in fresh water with Lc50 of 37.26 and Mymy detergent showed less toxicity in fresh water with Lc50 of 47.82.